A Sustainable Future for the Marine Ornamentals Trade
Bruce Bunting, Vice President,
Center for Conservation Finance, World Wildlife Fund U.S. and Marshall
Meyers, Executive Vice President, Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council
(All pictures reproduced by kind courtesy of the Marine Aquarium Council)
Aquarium keepers, business people,
conservationists and government representatives each view coral reef
marine organisms from slightly different perspectives. However, they
all agree that it is important for the marine aquarium hobby, marine
ornamentals business, the coral reef environment and the communities
fishing on reefs to keep these resources healthy.
For
this reason, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Pet Industry Joint
Advisory Council (PIJAC) four years ago spearheaded a coalition of
other international conservation organisations, industry
representatives, public aquariums and hobbyist groups to form the
Marine Aquarium Council (MAC). Among the key concepts behind MAC is the
belief that the local communities, the private sector and consumers
have a vast potential to become a major -if not the leading - force for
coral reef conservation.
The MAC Certification label enables
consumers worldwide easily to identify marine aquarium organisms that
were collected in an environmentally safe manner and handled to ensure
optimal health. By purchasing organisms with the MAC label, hobbyists
will be able to buy a fish, buy a coral and, by so doing, help save a
reef.
While the concept of 'buying' to
'save' may seem like a paradox, during its 40 years of involvement in
conservation projects worldwide, WWF has come to recognise - and
embrace - the importance of economic incentives to sustain
conservation. At the same time, PIJAC and others involved in the
wildlife trade have realised that the sustainability of habitats and
wild stocks are the basis for this industry and that 'conservation' was
not only good for business, but also essential for the industry to
survive.
The MAC Certification system was
developed with input from all stakeholder groups throughout the world.
Now it is time to put this system to work and for the industry and
hobby with a vested interest in sustaining the coral reefs that
"supply" marine ornamentals to support it and make it succeed.
Why Save Coral Reefs?
Coral
reefs are among the biologically richest ecosystems on earth. They are
a source of biodiversity, food, environmental protection, recreation
and potential medicinal products. Throughout much of the world,
communities and governments are dependent on them for subsistence,
jobs, products and revenue. Tragically, as important as they are, coral
reefs are also under ever-increasing threat due to global warming, 
coastal
development, destructive fishing practices and other human-related
activities. Dubbed 'the rainforests of the sea', coral reefs consist of
about 800 species of stony corals. They are home to about 4,000 species
of fish - more than a quarter of all known marine fish species - as
well as an incredible variety of sponges, molluscs and other
invertebrates (Paulay 1997). And that is only the known species, for
there are many yet to be discovered. Coral reefs and associated
habitats also help to support important charismatic species that are
loved the world over, such as marine turtles, dugongs, rays, whale
sharks and others. Estimates of total diversity of reefs range up to 2
million species.
In recent years scientists have begun
to examine the biodiversity of coral reefs more closely in search of
cures for human diseases. Coral reefs are especially promising because
the chemicals that many of them produce may contain important
biochemical compounds. Recently, up to one-half of all new cancer drug
research focused on marine organisms - and much of this targeted coral
reefs (Fenical 1996). Besides being rich in biodiversity, coral reefs
are productive biologically in volume. In fact, one square kilometre of
healthy coral reef can produce up to 37 metric tons of fish (Alcala
1988).
Most
coral reefs are located in developing countries, and much of the
world's poor depend directly on reef species for protein. Even though
coral reefs occupy less than one quarter of 1% of the marine
environment, they contribute about one-quarter of the total fish catch
-feeding as many as one billion people in Asia alone (Kaufman and
Dayton 1997). Additionally, coral reefs protect coastal communities
from storms and wave action and reduce the impacts of global warming by
incorporating carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and carbonate
production. Furthermore, through natural carbonate sediment production,
reefs create an important recreational item - thousands of miles of
white sandy beaches.
The direct and indirect benefits of
reefs have an estimated value of $375 billion each year (Costanza et
al. 1997). One square kilometre of healthy coral reef in Indonesia is
worth an estimated $12,000/year in fisheries production alone (Cesar et
al. 1997). Therefore, maintaining the health of coral reefs so they can
continue to support food production and the employment and income
benefits of fisheries is an important issue, especially in developing
countries.
Another industry that is important to
developing countries is reef-based tourism. Until the 11 September,
2001 tragedy, tourism was the largest and fastest-growing sector of the
global economy and it was largely focused on the coast, often in coral
reef areas. For example, Florida's 220-mile long reef tract generated
$1 billion in annual fishing and tourism revenues (Lee 1996).
Australia's Great Barrier Reef attracts more than 2 million visitors
per year and is worth about $600 million annually (Alcock 1996).
Reefs also yield a host of other
'products'. Sand, gravel and limestone rock are extracted for a variety
of construction purposes. Other products include coral and shell
jewelry, tourism curios and, of course, marine ornamentals.
State of Coral Reefs
Despite
their importance to humans, or perhaps, because of their importance,
coral reefs worldwide are in trouble today. A recent global overview of
the state of coral reefs - appropriately entitled 'Reefs at Risk' -
documented the alarming state of the world's coral reefs (Bryant et al.
1998): 58% of the world's reefs are potentially threatened by human
activity - ranging from coastal development, destructive fishing
practices and climate change to overexploitation of resources, marine
pollution, and runoff from inland deforestation and farming. Coral
reefs of Southeast Asia, the most species-rich on earth, are the most
threatened of any region. More than 80% are at risk, primarily from
coastal development and fishing-related pressures.
At
least 11% of the world's coral reefs contain high levels of reef fish
biodiversity and are under high threat from human activities. These
'hot spot' areas include almost all Philippine reefs, as well as many
of the reefs in Indonesia, Tanzania, the Comoros and the Caribbean. A
large part of the problem is due to the increased size of the human
population and their growing concentrations along the coast. Overall,
nearly 40% of the world's inhabitants - over 2 billion people -live
within 100 km of the sea (Cohen 1998). Almost half a billion, or 8% of
the total global population, live within 100 km of a coral reef (Bryant
et al. 1998).
Coastal development near coral reefs
poses a range of threats. The most obvious are the human activities
that directly destroy reefs, such as the construction of airports and
other landfill projects on top of reefs, dredging for harbours, and
extracting sand, gravel and limestone rock for construction materials.
Human activities that indirectly impact coral reefs are even more
damaging and widespread. Coastal development, such as shoreline
construction and the clearing of inland watersheds, creates erosion and
flooding conditions. Sediment and nutrients that are discharged into
reef waters can smother the corals. They also reduce the light levels
needed for coral growth and the establishment of new corals. Likewise,
sewage and upland sources of excess nutrients, such as agricultural
runoff with fertiliser, can create algae 'blooms' that block sunlight
and reduce coral growth.
Another pervasive human activity with
indirect effects on coral reefs, including those found in remote areas,
is unmanaged fishing. Overfishing can cause shifts in fish size,
abundance and species composition within reef communities. When
nonselective fishing methods are used, large numbers of other species,
along with the targeted species, may be swept up in nets or killed by
poisons or explosives in the process. The removal of key species may
ultimately create ecosystem level changes. For instance, in the
Caribbean, excessive removal of algae-eating fish led to
algae-domination that has smothered coral in some areas.
Additionally, reefs are directly
destroyed by some fishing methods, such as fishing with dynamite,
fishing with cyanide and other poisonous chemicals, muroami
netting (pounding reefs with weighted bags to scare fish out of
crevices) and trawling. Even untrained, careless snorkelers and divers
can trample coral reefs, and boat anchoring on coral reefs can cause
direct destruction. Global climate change is another emerging threat to
coral reefs. Climate change will likely elevate sea surface
temperatures in many places, causing sea levels to rise and increasing
the frequency and intensity of storms. Already we have experienced
unusually high water temperatures caused by severe El Niño
oceanographic events, which are likely due to global warming. These
high water temperatures have been linked to the bleaching of corals,
which is a phenomenon that occurs when stressed corals expel their
zooxanthellae (symbiotic algae). During a 1998 bleaching event, up to
90% of reef coverage was destroyed in some areas. Fortunately, many
reefs are recovering even after being hit badly by this event.
In many cases it is difficult to
pinpoint the exact causes of the serious declines in coral reef health
occurring around the world. Frequently, there is no single cause but a
combination of factors that leaves reefs vulnerable to periodic natural
disturbances such as temperature extremes, hurricanes, cyclones and
other natural events.
Many argue that of all the threats to
coral reefs, the marine aquarium industry is one of the least
threatening. In fact, impartial studies have concluded that "in
comparison to other extractive and destructive impacts on coral
reefs,the effects of collecting live coral for the aquarium trade are
very small" and that the global coral trade has "little long term
impact."
But
the more important point about the marine ornamental industry that we
should focus on is not its minimal impact, but, rather, its great
potential to create incentives for conservation. This ecosystem
conservation itself can be the critical element that not only saves
biodiversity, but also protects the marine ornamentals industry. Think
about it. A threat to coral reefs, regardless of its source, is a
threat to the marine ornamentals industry because destruction of coral
reefs leads to loss of marine aquarium organism habitat and eventual
loss of valuable animals themselves. Threats to coral reefs not only
attack biodiversity, they also attack the industry that companies and
local communities around the world depend on for livelihood. Speaking
simply, if the reef dies, we would all go under.
The marine ornamental industry,
however, has vast potential, not only to become sustainable itself, but
also to create an anchor for broad coral reef protection. This
protection will, in turn, protect not only the industry itself - but
other sustainable, reef-dependant activities as well - and create a
win-win solution for all coral reef stakeholders.
How Economics Fosters Conservation
First,
conservation must be linked with development. Protected areas (e.g.
national parks) cannot be separated from their social, economic and
political contexts, and they cannot survive indefinitely in a sea of
human need. Second, conservation must address the global market and
consumer forces that dramatically affect the environment and the
economic incentives that underlie these forces.
It is clear that a sustainable marine
ornamental industry could provide critical incentives for the
conservation of coral reefs. When communities derive economic benefits
from a resource, they become predisposed to participate in protection
of that resource. For example, in one coastal community in the
Philippines, marine ornamental fishermen - through community-based
efforts - have established closed seasons and limited access to
collection areas.
However, not all communities are
equipped to organise conservation on their own and so, other protection
efforts must be pursued as well. The marine ornamentals industry, by
giving value to the sustainable use of coral reef resources, sets a
climate for such partnerships between the private sector and
non-government, as well as government organisations. This is an
especially important factor for coral reefs, as many countries lack the
capacity to undertake resource management and enforcement efforts
successfully in the remote areas where many coral reefs are found.
The collection, export and keeping of
coral reef animals have numerous benefits that are often overlooked by
those criticising the trade and hobby. Collecting and exporting marine
aquarium organisms in developing countries creates jobs and income in
rural coastal areas that have limited resources and economic options.
There are an estimated 7,000 collectors in the Philippines, many of
them supporting families. A UNESCO report estimates the number of
people in Sri Lanka directly involved in the export of reef animals is
as high as 50,000 (Kenchington, 1985).
In addition, aquarium animals are the
highest value-added product possible to harvest sustainably from coral
reefs. Aquarium fish sell for $248 per pound, compared to food fish at
$3 per pound (Food and Agriculture Organisation 1999). Likewise, on
average, live coral is worth $3.50 per pound, while crushed coral for
lime sells for 3 cents per pound (Green and Shirley 1999). Collectors,
therefore, have strong financial incentives to ensure that stocks of
marine aquarium organisms and their environments remain healthy.
Furthermore, in developed countries,
public and private marine aquariums depend on wild-caught marine
aquarium organisms for 98% of the reef animals in their tanks. Often,
these marine aquariums are a primary source of knowledge about coral
reef organisms and ecosystems for the people in these countries. Their
existence contributes to conservation awareness for coral reefs
worldwide.
On the other hand, the loss of the
marine aquarium industry would eliminate jobs and, quite likely, the
stewardship incentive. This could leave rural, coastal areas open to
more destructive uses and to increased environmental degradation.
Eliminating the community's high value-added aquarium fishery would
contribute to the poverty that drives people to use destructive fishing
practices, such as blasting, to gather food for the community.
Eliminating economic options where few exist can also contribute to the
out-migration from rural coastal areas to already over-populated urban
areas.
How MAC Certification Works
MAC
Certification can help harness economic forces to facilitate positive
global environmental change. All parties interested in the future of
the marine ornamentals industry can benefit from the MAC system, but,
to do so, each must do their part.
Industry:
The MAC Certification system provides a set of internationally approved
environmental and quality standards for the collection of living marine
organisms. By becoming MAC-Certified, companies are not only ensuring
the future of coral reef ecosystems, they are ensuring the future of
their business as well.
Also, as consumers become more aware
of the importance and availability of MAC-Certified Organisms,
certified companies will reap the rewards of consumer demand and
confidence in their practices and products. The challenge is for the
industry to acknowledge the winds of change, to seek certification and
to provide consumers with MAC-Certified marine ornamentals.
Hobbyists:
For those with an aquarium at home or in the office, the MAC
Certification label for marine ornamentals provides with a means to
identify organisms that were collected and handled in a manner
consistent with the long-term conservation and sustainability of coral
reefs and their adjacent community.
Consumer purchasing power can reward
responsible industry operators and force those who are irresponsible to
change their ways. Hobbyists must demand and purchase only
MAC-Certified marine ornamentals and will benefit by having a coral
reef organism that is likely to live much longer and be much healthier
than organisms caught through destructive means (such as the use of
cyanide).
Conservation Organisations:
When communities derive economic benefits from a resource, they become
motivated to protect those resources. By attaching an economic value to
the sustainable use of coral reef resources through the MAC
Certification label, the marine ornamentals industry is helping create
an economic incentive for effectively conserving coral reefs worldwide.
Conservation organisations must partner with local communities that
depend on marine aquarium resources and to help them, not only to
embrace MAC Certification, but also to protect the greater coral reef
ecosystem from its myriad threats. This will protect biodiversity,
while ensuring the long-term sustainable use of the marine resources
these communities depend on for their livelihood.
Public Aquariums:
The MAC Certification system provides these facilities with an
important tool for educating the broader public about the plight of
coral reefs and the economic and environmental benefits of a
responsible marine aquarium industry. This can also demonstrate their
commitment to in-situ conservation, thus enhancing their public
profile. Public aquariums should only purchase MAC-Certified organisms
and actively help educate the general public about the significance of
MAC Certification.
Government Agencies:
Not all governments have sufficient financial resources to protect the
environment effectively. Many are now recognising the importance of
public-private partnerships to help achieve the goal of protecting the
environment.
Government natural resource management
will benefit by creating the conditions for the private sector to
pursue marine conservation. Governments should actively encourage the
adoption of MAC Certification through supportive legislation and
policies. This will help support efforts by rural communities and
businesses to protect the environment for everyoneis benefit.
If we all work together we can
continue to have healthy populations of fish and corals on healthy
reefs that support healthy business and a healthy hobby into the future.
References
Alcala, A. 1988. Effects of marine reserves on coral fish abundance and yields of Philippines coral reefs. Ambio 17:194-99.
Alcock, D. 1996.
Tourism: The key player in the ecologically sustainable development of
the Great Barrier Reef. Paper presented at 1996 World Congress on
Coastal and Marine Tourism, Honolulu.
Bryant, D., L. Burke, J. McManus and M. Spalding. 1998. Reefs at risk: A map-based indicator of potential threats to the world's coral reefs. World Resources Institute.
Cesar, H., C. Lundin, S. Bettencourt and J. Dixon. 1997. Indonesian coral reefs: An economic analysis of a precious but threatened resource. Ambio 26 (6): 345-50.
Cohen, J. 1998. Estimates of coastal populations. Science 278 (5341): 1211-12.
Costanza, R., R. d'Arge, R. de
Groot, S. Farber, M. Grasso, B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S. Naeem, R.
O'Neill, J. Paruelo, R. Raskin, P. Sutton and M. van den Belt. 1997. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253-60.
Fenical, W. 1996. Marine biodiversity and the medicine cabinet: The status of new drugs from marine organisms. Oceanography 9 (1): 23-24.
Green, E., and F. Shirley. 1999. The Global Trade in Coral. WCMC Biodiversity Series no. 9. World Conservation Monitoring Centre.
Kaufman, L., and P. Dayton. 1997. Impacts of marine resources extraction on ecosystem services and sustainability. In Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems, edited by G. Daily, 275. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Kenchington, R. 1985. Coral reef ecosystems: A sustainable resource. Nature and Resources 21 (2): 18-27. Paris: UNESCO.
Lee, D. 1996. The
economics of managing Florida's coral reefs. Paper presented at the
1996 World Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism, Honolulu.
Paulay, G. 1997. Diversity and distribution of reef organisms. In Life and Death of Coral Reefs, edited by C. Birkeland, 303-4. New York: Chapman and Hall.
OFI Journal Issue 39: May 2002
